Consider the following sentences.

All of the sentences in (1) have two clauses. Look at the parts of the sentences that are in square brackets. Each of them has its own verb and arguments and can stand on its own as a sentence (if you take out the that and because), even though it is also part of a larger sentence. These are all clauses.

A clause consists of a predicate and its arguments. All of the sentences in (1) have two clauses, but a sentence can have more than two. The sentence in (2) has six clauses! Sentence (2) rambles a bit and is repetitive, but it is grammatical.

The easiest way to find all of the clauses in a sentence is to find the predicates. There will normally be one clause for each predicate. In (2), I have bolded the predicates of each clause. Then, find the arguments and adjuncts that belong to each predicate. Sometimes a clause has a special word to introduce the clause, like that and because. These are called complementizers and belong to the clause, too. There may also be a wh-word that belongs with the clause.

There is more than one kind of clause. Clauses are generally classified based on their relationship to other parts of the sentence. Some clauses also have special structure and can be classified based on their internal structure. Over the next few sections, we will learn how to classify clauses based on these two properties.

Main and embedded clauses

If you look at the examples of clauses in (1), you may notice that some clauses are inside of other clauses. The ones that are inside are called embedded clauses. You may also see them referred to as subordinate or dependent clauses. The clauses that they are inside of are called main clauses. They can also be called independent, matrix, or root clauses.

Let’s look again at example (1a), repeated below in (3). In this sentence, the embedded clause is that spaghetti is delicious. The main clause is I think that spaghetti is delicious. The embedded clause is the object of the main clause verb think, which makes the entire embedded clause part of the main clause.

Argument clauses

Some clauses are arguments of a verb. As we already saw, the embedded clause in (3) is the object of the main clause verb. An embedded clause can also be in subject position. This is the case in (1d) and (1h), repeated below in (4).

In (4a), the embedded clause that spaghetti is delicious is the subject of the predicate is obvious. In (4b), the embedded clause having spaghetti for dinner is the subject of the predicate is a good idea.

Adjunct clauses

Clauses can also be adjuncts. Remember that adjuncts are optional modifiers. Adjunct clauses can modify the entire main clause, a verb, or a noun. Some examples of adjunct clauses are found in (1b), (1e), (1f), and (1i), and are repeated below in (5). In (5a) and (5b), the embedded clause because it is delicious modifies the entire main clause. In (5c), the embedded clause which is delicious modifies the noun spaghetti. In (5c), the embedded clause when it is ready modifies the verb eat. All of these embedded clauses are adjuncts; they are not required to form a complete sentence.

Kinds of sentences

We can also classify sentences based on how many clauses it has and how the clauses are combined. If a sentence only has one clause, it is called a simple sentence. The single clause in a simple sentence will always be a main clause. Some examples of simple sentences are shown in (6).

If a sentence has two or more conjoined main clauses, it is called a compound sentence. Example (1c), repeated below as (7), is an example of a compound sentence.

Finally, if a sentence has one or more embedded clauses, it is called a complex sentence. A complex sentence will also always have at least one main clause, as well. All of the sentences in (1) except the compound sentence in (1c) are complex sentences. The complex sentences from (1) are repeated below in (8).

Check yourself!

References and further resources

Academic sources

Aikhenvald, Alexandra, and R. M. W. Dixon. 2006. Serial verb constructions: A cross-linguistic typology. Oxford: Oxford UP.