9. Words
Chapter 9 practice exercises
Data analysis
Exercise 1. Look at the dictionary entry for the word meaning ‘canoe’ in this Ojibwe dictionary.
a. What is the citation form for this word?
b. Which word forms does it list?
c. Identify all of the word tokens of the word for canoe on the website. List two examples here.
d. How many lexemes do you think are represented by this one dictionary entry? Explain your reasoning.
Exercise 2. Consider the following data from four different languages. Based on the data provided here, classify each language either as isolating, agglutinative, fusional, or polysynthetic. Explain the reasoning behind your classification choice.
Abbreviations used in these examples include 1, 2, 3 = 1st, 2nd, 3rd person, ACC = accusative (object pronoun), CPL = completive, DAT = dative (indirect object pronoun), DET = determiner, FUT = future, NOM = nominative (subject pronoun), PL = plural, PROG = progressive (action in progress), SG = singular
| (1) | q’ai-hwagait-tsagam-yu’k-det |
| still-CPL-toward_shore-move-3PL | |
| ‘they moved still far away toward the shore’ |
[Tsimshian; Boas 1911: 325, as cited in Mattissen 2004: 191]
| (2) | Le | are | k-u-k’yek | le | t’oyt’ik. |
| DET | 3SG | PROG-3SG-kick | DET | ball | |
| ‘S/he is/was kicking the ball.’ | |||||
[K’iche’; data from Elsa Sacalshot]
| (3) | a. | bɨ | vuch-a-th | tsɨ |
| 1SG.NOM | see-1SG-2SG.ACC | 2SG.ACC | ||
| ‘I will see you.’ | ||||
[Kashmiri; Wali & Koul 1997: 228, as cited in Manetta 2014: 246]
| b. | su | vuch-iy | (tse) | |
| 3SG.NOM | see-2SG.DAT | 2SG.DAT | ||
| ‘He will see you.’ | ||||
| c. | su | vuch-i | tǝmis | |
| 3SG.NOM | see-FUT | 3SG.DAT | ||
| ‘He will see him.’ | ||||
[Kashmiri; Manetta 2014: 246]
| (4) | Kua | kitia | e | au | a | Moka. |
| PERF | see | ERG | 1SG | ABS | Moka | |
| ‘I saw Moka.’ | ||||||
[Niuean; Massam 2020: 4]
Communication and study skills
Exercise 3. Polysynthetic languages cause particular challenges for the concept of wordhood. Choose one of the attempted definitions of word from Section 7.4 and discuss whether that definition could handle polysynthetic languages.
Exercise 4. Think of a slang word or a word that has only recently entered English or another language you speak. Construct a dictionary for the word. Include the citation form, inflectional forms (if any), part of speech, pronunication, a definition, and examples of the word in use.
Hint: Use a published (paper or online) dictionary as a model for how to format the dictionary entry.
Exercise 5. Look up the rules of a word game and answer the following questions. You can use the rules from the game Codenames copied below or choose another word game.
a. Think about the rules of the game. Which uses of word are relevant to the game mechanics (for example, lexeme, word form, word token, etc…)? Does the game need to limit productive formation of new words, or would creative formation of new words make the game more fun?
b. If the game defines what is or is not a word for the purposes of the game, does the game’s definition of a word have any problems? Can you think of anything that you would consider a word that is excluded by the game’s definition, or anything that you would not consider a word that is included? If you were involved in the game design, would you recommend any changes to how word is defined in the instructions?
c. If the game does not define what is a word, how would you define a word for the purposes of this game? Remember to use non-technical terminology, so that users will be able to understand the instructions. Why did you choose the definition you chose?
In the game Codenames, one player gives clues to the rest of their team to help them pick out their team’s secret words out of a set of 25 words. The catch is that the clue can only be one word long! Because of this, the game instructions spend some time defining what counts as a single word. Here is an excerpt.
Sometimes you have to make judgment calls about what is valid and what is not. Different groups may prefer to play the game differently.
Compound words
English has three ways to write a compound word. Greenhouse is one word. Pack rat is two words. Mother-in-law is hyphenated. Technically, only greenhouse can be a one-word clue.
You can decide to allow any compound words. However, in no case should a player be allowed to invent compound words. Lunar squid is not a valid clue for MOON and OCTOPUS.
Proper names
Proper names are always valid clues if they follow the other rules. George is a valid clue, but you might want to specify whether you mean George Washington or George W. Bush. Your group can agree to count proper names as one word. This would also allow titles such as The Three Musketeers. Even if you don’t allow multi-word proper names, you might want to make an exception for place names like New York.
Spymasters should not be allowed to make up names, not even names that turn out to be real. Sue Mee is not a valid clue for CHINA and LAWYER.
Acronyms and abbreviations
Technically, CIA is not one word. But it is a great clue. You can decide to allow common abbreviations like UK, lol, and PhD. And words like laser, radar, and sonar are always allowed, even thought they originated as acronyms.
Homonyms
Some people prefer to allow a more liberal use of homonyms. You can allow knight to be a clue for night-related things if that makes the game more fun for you.
(Chvátil 2015: 7)
Research and application
Exercise 6. Look up the following words in an etymological dictionary. What is their word formation process? How can you tell? Be sure to use the technical terms for different formation processes discussed in Section 7.1.
Note: Sometimes the dictionary entry will tell you directly. Other times, you will have to read the etymology and decide for yourselves based on the description of the word’s history.
a. Scuba (n)
b. Brainwash (n)
c. Camcorder (n)
d. Traceable (adj)
e. Bandersnatch (n)
f. Party (v)
g. DIY (adj/n)
h. Gym (n)
i. Boomerang (n)
j. Scavenge (v)
k. Exam (n)
l. Okay (adj/adv)
m. Wabe (n)
n. Keyboard (n)
o. Labradoodle (n)
p. Yuppie (n)
Exercise 7. Choose one language you don’t know much about and look it up in WALS chapters 20, 21, and 22.
a. Provide a brief introductory statement about your language. (e.g., What is its name, what language family is it from, and where is it spoken?)
b. Describe your language in terms of fusion, exponence, and synthesis.
c. Based on what you found, does your language fall neatly into one of the traditional four categories? Why or why not?
Language journal
Exercise 8. Find a dictionary for your language. Pick a dictionary entry, and identify the lexeme, citation form, word forms, and word tokens in that entry.
Exercise 9. Is there an etymological dictionary available for your language? If so, find and describe the etymology of three different words in your language with three different word formation processes.
Exercise 10. Describe the synthesis, fusion, and exponence of your language. Does your language fit well into one of the categories of isolating, agglutinative, fusional, or polysynthetic? Explain your reasoning.
References and further resources
Sources for examples
Chvátil, Vlaada. 2015. Codenames. Czech Games Edition.
Manetta, Emily. 2014. Markedness and syncretism in Kashmiri differential argument encoding. In Pritha Chandra and Richa Srishti (eds.), The Lexicon-syntax interface: Perspectives from South Asian languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 245–270.
Massam, Diane. 2020. Niuean. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mattissen, Johanna. 2004. A structural typology of polysynthesis. Word 55(2).
